Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch Journal of Sport Biomechanics 2476-4906 11 2 2025 9 1 Comparative Effects of Static Stretching and PNF Techniques on Functional Flexibility and Postural Balance in Competitive Taekwondo Athletes 94 112 FA Alireza Rostami Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Raja University, Qazvin, Iran. Seyed Majid Tabatabaeinejad Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Raja University, Qazvin, Iran. Mostafa Soltani Department of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Raja University, Qazvin, Iran. Masoud Mirmoezzi Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Sciences, Qazvin Azad University, Qazvin, Iran. Objective Flexibility and functional balance are critical for optimal performance in Taekwondo, as they directly impact an athlete's ability to execute precise techniques and minimize the risk of injury. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of static stretching and proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) on flexibility and functional balance in Taekwondo practitioners. Methods Thirty-seven Taekwondo athletes (mean age: 19.43 ± 1.46 years; training experience: 4.05 ± 1.05 years) who met the inclusion criteria participated in this study. Participants were purposefully selected based on age, sex, and body mass index (BMI), and were randomly assigned to one of three groups: static stretching, PNF stretching, or control (no stretching). The PNF protocol employed the contract-relax-agonist-contract method, while the static stretching group performed 30-second holds over an eight-week period. Flexibility (measured via 180-degree split), single-leg stance time (SLST), and hop test (HT) performance were assessed before and after the intervention. Data were analyzed using ANCOVA with Bonferroni post-hoc tests, with significance set at p ≤ 0.05. Results Athletes in the PNF group showed significant improvements in 180-degree split flexibility (p < 0.001), SLST (p < 0.001), and HT performance (p < 0.05) compared to the control group. Conclusion PNF stretching appears to significantly enhance flexibility and functional balance in Taekwondo athletes. This technique may improve joint range of motion, reduce muscle stiffness, and enhance the execution of complex movements and quick directional changes essential in Taekwondo performance.

Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch Journal of Sport Biomechanics 2476-4906 11 2 2025 9 1 Prediction of Gymnastics Back Salto Biomechanics by Anthropometric Characteristics 114 130 FA Mohammad Javad Tahan Department of Sport Injuries and Biomechanics, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Shahrzad Zandi Department of Sport Injuries and Biomechanics, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Seyed Hamed Mousavi Department of Sport Injuries and Biomechanics, Faculty of Sports and Health Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Objective Jumping performance is a critical skill in gymnastics, and previous research has highlighted the role of anthropometric characteristics in jump ability, particularly for talent identification. This study aimed to examine the predictive relationships between anthropometric features and key biomechanical variables during the execution of a gymnastics back salto. Methods Sixty-eight elite male gymnasts (mean age: 20.60 ± 2.51 years) performed a back salto. Anthropometric variables—including lower limb length, foot length, sitting height-to-height ratio, thigh circumference, and calf circumference—were measured. The back salto performance was recorded using a Redmi Note 8T camera at 240 frames per second. Biomechanical variables analyzed included jump height, vertical take-off speed, flight time, hip joint angular velocity, and knee joint angular velocity, assessed using Kinovea software. Linear regression analysis was conducted to predict biomechanical outcomes based on anthropometric factors (SPSS v27, α = 0.05). Results Lower limb length (negative association) and foot length (positive association) significantly predicted jump height (R² = 0.256, p = 0.001) and flight time (R² = 0.317, p = 0.001). Foot length also significantly predicted vertical take-off speed (R² = 0.147, p = 0.001). However, none of the anthropometric variables significantly predicted hip or knee joint angular velocity. Conclusion The findings suggest that specific anthropometric characteristics—particularly lower limb and foot length—may serve as useful indicators for talent identification and selection of athletes with potential in performing the back salto. Moreover, designing tailored training programs based on athletes' anthropometric profiles may enhance jump performance and help prevent sport-related injuries.

Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch Journal of Sport Biomechanics 2476-4906 11 2 2025 9 1 Postural and Musculoskeletal Assessment of Iranian National Shooting Team Athletes 132 147 FA Alireza Bayati Department of Sports Biomechanics CT.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Heydar Sadeghi Department of Sport Biomechanics and Injuries, Faculty of Physical Education and Sports Science, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran. Razieh Yousefian Molla Department of Sports Biomechanics CT.C., Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Objective This study aimed to investigate and compare the postural and musculoskeletal status of male and female athletes on the Iranian national shooting team. Identifying potential abnormalities and understanding gender-specific differences within this elite population can help inform necessary strategies for improving and maintaining musculoskeletal health, as well as optimizing athletic performance in shooting. Methods This applied, cross-sectional, and comparative study was conducted on 32 athletes (16 females and 16 males) from the Iranian national shooting team, each with at least five years of membership and national championship titles. Postural and musculoskeletal abnormalities—including lateral head deviation, uneven shoulders, scoliosis, lateral pelvic tilt, ankle eversion, forward head posture, kyphosis, sway-back posture, abdominal ptosis, lumbar lordosis, genu varum, genu valgum, pes planus, pes cavus, and intoeing—were assessed using the New York Posture Rating Chart, a posture grid, a plumb line, and calipers. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Chi-square test, with significance set at P ≤ 0.05. Results A statistically significant difference was observed between male and female athletes only in the prevalence of lateral head deviation (P = 0.025), which was more common among males. No significant gender differences were found in other postural or musculoskeletal abnormalities. Most athletes exhibited normal posture in indicators such as scoliosis, kyphosis, and lateral pelvic tilt. However, conditions like lumbar lordosis, genu varum, and pes planus were observed in both groups, though without significant gender-based differences. Conclusion Elite male and female athletes of the Iranian national shooting team generally demonstrate favorable postural and musculoskeletal health. Nevertheless, the higher prevalence of lateral head deviation in males and the presence of abnormalities such as lordosis and lower limb deviations in both sexes merit attention. Regular screening, early detection of abnormalities, and implementation of targeted corrective interventions are essential for injury prevention, health maintenance, and performance enhancement in competitive shooters.

Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch Journal of Sport Biomechanics 2476-4906 11 2 2025 9 1 Comparison of the Effects of Home-Based Functional Exercises and Pilates on Fear of Falling in Elderly Women with and without a History of Falls 148 160 FA Masoumeh Aghlmand Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Najmeh A Shojaeian Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Humanities, Bojnourd Branch, Islamic Azad University, North Khorasan, Iran. Negar Arazeshi Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Keyvan Melanoruzi Department of Motor Behavior, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. Objective Fear of falling is a common and serious concern among the elderly. This study aimed to compare the effects of home-based functional exercises and Pilates on the level of fear of falling in elderly women with and without a history of falls. Methods Forty elderly women aged 70 to 80 were randomly assigned to four groups: (1) home-based functional exercise with a history of falls, (2) home-based functional exercise without a history of falls, (3) Pilates exercise with a history of falls, and (4) Pilates exercise without a history of falls. The interventions included a 12-week Pilates program and an 8-week functional exercise program. A history of falls was determined based on incidents reported within the past year. Fear of falling was assessed using the International Fall Complications Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using univariate ANCOVA for between-group comparisons and paired t-tests for within-group comparisons, conducted with SPSS version 23. Results Between-group comparisons revealed significant differences in fear of falling between the Pilates and functional exercise groups, in both participants with and without a history of falls (p = 0.001). Post-intervention analysis showed a significant reduction in fear of falling after eight weeks in the functional exercise group with a history of falls (p = 0.005), as well as in the Pilates groups and the functional exercise group without a history of falls (p = 0.001). ConclusionBoth Pilates and home-based functional exercises significantly reduced fear of falling in elderly women, regardless of fall history. Further studies with longer durations are recommended to better assess the preventive role of Pilates in reducing fall risk.

Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch Journal of Sport Biomechanics 2476-4906 11 2 2025 9 1 Comparative Analysis of Center of Pressure Responses During Defensive Landing in Professional and Novice Volleyball Players 162 174 FA Saber Darvishi Department of Sport Biomechanics, Ha.C., Islamic Azad University, Hamedan, Iran. Mahdi Majlesi Department of Sport Biomechanics, Ha.C., Islamic Azad University, Hamedan, Iran. Elaheh Azadian Department of Motor Behavior, Ha.C., Islamic Azad University, Hamedan, Iran. Objective This study aimed to evaluate the center of pressure (CoP) movements during landing after a block in professional volleyball players and to compare them with novice players. Methods In this cross-sectional descriptive study, ten professional and ten novice male volleyball players (with a minimum of two years of regular training) participated. CoP movements were assessed during five blocking conditions: static jump, step-side block to the right and left, and long cross-step block to the right and left. CoP displacement variables—including speed, range of sway, and RMS—were recorded during landing using a 3D motion capture system and force plates. Measurements were analyzed separately in the anterior–posterior (AP) and medial–lateral (ML) directions. Results The findings indicated that novice players generally exhibited greater CoP sway and higher RMS values during landing compared to professionals. Specifically, CoP sway in the ML direction was significantly greater in novices during static and left short-step blocks. Additionally, RMS values were significantly higher in most tasks among novices. However, there was no significant difference between groups in CoP speed. Conclusion The results suggest that novice players demonstrated greater variability (RMS) in CoP movements, even though they showed less overall sway amplitude. This pattern—higher variability with reduced sway—may reflect a "freezing" of degrees of freedom, a strategy commonly used by less experienced individuals to preserve balance. Such a strategy may compromise dynamic stability and increase the risk of injury.

Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch Journal of Sport Biomechanics 2476-4906 11 2 2025 9 1 Comparison of Traditional Resistance Training and TRX-Integrated Resistance Training on Core Muscle Strength, Static and Dynamic Balance, and Selected Physical Fitness Components in Sedentary Overweight Women 176 191 FA Saeid Alihosseini Department of Exercise Physiology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran. Zahra Alihosseini Department of Exercise Physiology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran. Ebrahim Piri Department of Sports Biomechanics, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran. Yaghoub Panahighaffarkandi Department of Exercise Physiology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran. Lotfali Bolboli Department of Exercise Physiology, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran. Objective The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of combined resistance training with TRX on body composition and physical fitness in non-athletic women. Methods The study population consisted of 30 sedentary women from Ardabil, who were voluntarily recruited from local fitness centers. Participants who met the inclusion criteria (no history of regular exercise, age between 25 and 35 years, and high body mass index) were randomly assigned to two groups: a traditional resistance training group (n = 15) and a TRX-integrated resistance training group (n = 15). The intervention lasted for five weeks, with four training sessions per week. Body composition, balance, flexibility, muscular strength, and core stability were assessed before and after the training period. Data were analyzed using paired and independent t-tests in SPSS version 24. Results Both training programs led to significant improvements in weight, BMI, body fat percentage, balance, flexibility, and core muscle strength (p < 0.05). However, no significant differences were found between the two groups in most of the measured variables. ConclusionOverall, both TRX-assisted and traditional resistance training effectively improved physical fitness in sedentary overweight women; however, incorporating TRX into the training regimen did not produce significantly superior outcomes.

Islamic Azad University, Hamedan Branch Journal of Sport Biomechanics 2476-4906 11 2 2025 9 1 Effect of Blood Flow Restriction Training on Groin Pain in Football Players 192 206 EN Ashwini Bulbuli KLE Institute of Physiotherapy, Belagavi, Karnataka, India. Naumaan Chajju KLE Institute of Physiotherapy, Belagavi, Karnataka, India. Niranjan Ghatage KLE Institute of Physiotherapy, Belagavi, Karnataka, India. Nikhil Hadgal KLE Institute of Physiotherapy, Belagavi, Karnataka, India. Objective Hip and/or groin injuries are among the most common physical complaints in adult male football players, accounting for 10–20% of all new injuries. Blood Flow Restriction (BFR) training combined with low-load resistance exercise has demonstrated several beneficial physiological effects. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of BFR training on groin pain in male football players aged 18 to 30 years. Methods This single-arm interventional study included 16 male football players aged between 18 and 30 years who volunteered to participate. Participants were recruited through screening using the Visual Analogue Scale (VAS); those scoring ≥3 were included. Groin pain and function were assessed using the Copenhagen Hip and Groin Outcome Score (HAGOS), and baseline scores were recorded. Participants underwent BFR training combined with a Modified Holmich’s protocol over a four-week period (12 sessions in total). Pre- and post-intervention data were collected and analyzed statistically to determine the intervention's effectiveness. Results The calculated effect size (Cohen’s d) was 4.66, indicating a very large effect according to standard reference values. Statistical analysis at the 5% significance level revealed a significant difference between pre- and post-intervention scores (p < 0.001), confirming notable improvements in outcomes following the intervention. Conclusion Blood flow restriction training is effective in reducing groin pain by enhancing muscle strength under low mechanical load. This approach may support faster rehabilitation and a safer return to play for football players.