1.    Introduction
The three-point shot has become one of the most influential elements in modern basketball, significantly affecting both individual performance and overall team outcomes (1). Mastering this skill is challenging, as it requires a complex integration of biomechanical components, including precise joint kinematics, the application of muscular force to generate net movement, and an efficient kinetic chain (2). Numerous biomechanical factors—such as release angle, release speed, ground reaction force, and joint angles—have been shown to impact shooting accuracy and consistency (3,4).
While the biomechanics of basketball shooting have been extensively studied worldwide, limited empirical research has focused specifically on elite Iraqi basketball players. Iraq presents a distinct cultural, physiological, and infrastructural context that may influence movement mechanics. Differences in anthropometric profiles, training methods, and access to performance-enhancing technologies may contribute to biomechanical patterns that deviate from international norms (5). Understanding these contextual factors is essential for identifying performance limitations and developing tailored, evidence-based training programs (6).
Recent advancements in three-dimensional motion analysis have revolutionized the measurement of sports movements, providing more precise evaluations of joint angles, angular velocities, and external forces during dynamic actions than traditional kinematic methods. It has been demonstrated that elite shooters adjust their release mechanics depending on shooting distance to maintain accuracy (3,7), and that variations in knee and hip angles, as well as ground reaction forces, are associated with differences in performance (8,9). Moreover, core stability and neuromuscular control are closely linked to better postural alignment and consistent movement execution during the shooting process (10–12).
Despite the global emphasis on shooting performance, the three-point shot mechanics of elite Iraqi players remain underexplored. This gap presents a valuable opportunity to assess whether variables such as knee and hip angles at release, shoulder angular velocity, ball release speed and angle, and ground reaction force differ from widely accepted benchmarks—and how these factors relate to shooting efficiency.
Therefore, the aim of this study is to compare the biomechanics of three-point shooting between elite Iraqi basketball players and international players. A three-dimensional motion capture system and force plate analysis will be used to assess joint kinematics, kinetics, and shooting performance. Specifically, the study will evaluate knee and hip angles at release, shoulder angular velocity, ball release speed and angle, ground reaction forces, and shot success rate. The objective is to identify biomechanical deficiencies among Iraqi athletes and provide a performance profile that may inform the development of training programs to improve technical skills, shooting accuracy, and competitive performance in Iraqi basketball. 
2.    Methods
2.1. Participants
This study adopted a quantitative, cross-sectional, and comparative design to investigate the biomechanical characteristics of three-point shooting among elite Iraqi basketball players in comparison with international counterparts. A total of 80 elite male basketball players participated in the study, comprising 40 elite Iraqi players and 40 international elite players. The Iraqi participants, aged between 20 and 28 years, were recruited from top Premier League clubs including Al-Shorta, Al-Kahrabaa, Al-Naft, Al-Hashed Alshaby, Al-Basra, Al-Hilla, and Al-Karkh. All of them had at least five years of professional playing experience, no reported injuries within the past six months, and consistent three-point shooting performance confirmed by their coaches. The international group’s data were obtained from validated, publicly accessible biomechanical databases, such as the NBA Motion Analysis Projects, FIBA Biomechanics Programs, and peer-reviewed publications (7,8,13). To ensure fair and objective comparisons, independent samples t-tests were used to compare demographic and anthropometric variables including age, height, body weight, and years of experience. No significant differences were found between the two groups (p > 0.05), confirming their homogeneity and justifying biomechanical comparison (Table 1).

2.2.    Equipment and Measurement Tools
Advanced biomechanical instrumentation was employed to ensure precise data collection and analysis. A Vicon Motion Capture System comprising 12 infrared cameras operating at 250 Hz was used to capture three-dimensional kinematic data during shooting movements. Key kinematic variables extracted included joint angles (knee, hip, and shoulder) measured in the sagittal plane, which are critical for analyzing shooting mechanics. Additionally, shoulder angular velocity was calculated to evaluate upper limb dynamics at the moment of ball release.
For kinetic analysis, two AMTI force platforms were utilized to record the vertical component of the ground reaction forces (GRF) during the jump phase of the shot. These force values were normalized to each player's body weight (%BW) to facilitate meaningful comparisons across individuals with varying body sizes. The platforms were positioned side by side to capture the landing and takeoff of the preferred foot, identified as the player's dominant (shooting) foot, based on the rationale that it contributes most significantly to jump propulsion. High-speed digital cameras operating at 1200 frames per second were used to capture ball release timing and flight mechanics. Reflective markers were placed on anatomical landmarks following the International Society of Biomechanics (ISB) standards to ensure precise tracking of body segments. Additionally, Dartfish Motion Analysis Software was used for two-dimensional video verification and supplementary angular assessments to complement the 3D data.
2.3.    Procedure
Data collection was conducted in a standard indoor facility (Al-Shaab Indoor Court), which is officially approved by the Asian Basketball Confederation for professional international competitions. All participants completed a standardized 10-minute dynamic warm-up followed by shooting drills to prepare for testing. After warming up, reflective markers were placed on predefined anatomical landmarks by trained technicians. Each player then performed 20 consecutive three-point shots from the top of the arc (6.75 m), with 5-second rest intervals between shots to prevent fatigue. All attempts were captured using the motion capture system, and only valid recordings—free of system errors such as marker occlusion—were included in the analysis. Environmental conditions including lighting, temperature, and flooring were standardized and remained consistent throughout all testing sessions. For the international group, previously collected data from public biomechanical repositories (e.g., NBA Motion Analysis Projects and FIBA Biomechanics Programs) were used to enable a valid comparative framework.
Importantly, jump height was estimated using motion capture data based on the vertical displacement of the center of mass during the shooting motion. This parameter was included in the analysis to account for its possible influence on shooting mechanics and performance outcomes.
2.4.    Data Analysis
The collected data were processed using MATLAB R2023a and analyzed in SPSS version 26. MATLAB was used to extract and process kinematic and kinetic parameters, including joint angles (knee, hip, and shoulder), shoulder angular velocity, and ground reaction force time series derived from the 3D motion capture and force plate systems. SPSS was used for statistical analysis. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were calculated for all biomechanical variables. Independent samples t-tests were performed to compare the Iraqi and international groups. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. Additionally, Cohen’s d was used to evaluate the effect size of differences between groups. A comprehensive analysis was conducted to examine the relationships between joint angles, release velocity, ground reaction forces, shot success rates, and overall performance.
3.    Results
The biomechanical analysis revealed significant differences between elite Iraqi basketball players and their international counterparts across several key performance indicators. Iraqi players exhibited reduced knee and hip angles at the point of ball release, lower shoulder angular velocity, slower ball release speeds, and diminished ground reaction forces (GRF). These mechanical deficiencies were associated with a substantially lower shot success rate in the Iraqi group (58.5%) compared to the international group (70.2%) (Table 2). Visual comparisons illustrated in Fig. 1 further highlight these disparities in joint angles, release mechanics, and shooting outcomes. Moreover, effect size analysis supported these findings, with all Cohen’s d values exceeding 0.8, indicating large to very large practical effects. The most notable differences were observed in shot success rate (d = 1.95), ground reaction force (d = 1.70), and ball release speed (d = 1.60), suggesting substantial discrepancies in both upper and lower limb mechanics between the two groups (Table 3). 

Fig. 1. Comparative Analysis of Key Biomechanical Variables in Three-Point Shooting Between Elite Iraqi and International Basketball Players; (Top Left: Comparison of Knee Angle at Release, Top Right: Comparison of Hip Angle at Release, Middle Left: Comparison of Shoulder Angular Velocity at Release, Middle Right: Comparison of Ball Release Speed, Bottom Left: Comparison of Ball Release Angle, Bottom Right: Comparison of Ground Reaction Force and Bottom (Centered): Comparison of Shot Success Rate

4.    Discussion
Overall, the findings of this study aligned well with previous biomechanical research on basketball shooting. The observed differences in joint kinematics, angular velocities, and force production between elite Iraqi players and international norms highlight specific biomechanical deficiencies that may underlie the relatively lower shooting accuracy among Iraqi athletes.
One notable finding was the reduced knee flexion angle among Iraqi players during the shooting preparation phase. Knee flexion plays a crucial role in generating vertical impulse and kinetic energy transfer through the body's kinetic chain, which affects both jump height and ball release point (2,13). This result supports previous research by Ammar et al. (2016), who emphasized that an optimal level of knee flexion is necessary to generate sufficient power for jump shots (15). Similarly, Ghobadi Nezha et al. (2021) found that jump-landing training improves knee alignment and enhances shooting efficiency, which is consistent with the current findings (16). Reduced knee flexion may hinder energy transfer and shooting precision, as supported by Mohammadi et al. (2018), who demonstrated the functional implications of knee valgus in basketball players (17). Shoulder flexion before release was also significantly lower among Iraqi players. Adequate shoulder flexion contributes to achieving an optimal release height and ball trajectory, both of which are important for shot accuracy (3). This finding is in line with studies by Struzik et al. (2014) and Zhen et al. (2015), which associated increased shoulder flexion with improved precision and shot stability (18,19). A limited range of shoulder flexion in Iraqi players may partially explain the reduced shooting effectiveness observed in team sports contexts. In addition, Iraqi players exhibited slower angular velocities at the shoulder and elbow, which corresponded with reduced ball release speeds and lower shooting success. High angular velocity of the upper limbs is essential for accelerating the ball over longer distances (18,19). This supports the work of Miller and Bartlett (1993), who reported a linear relationship between angular velocity and shooting accuracy (4).
The limited mechanics of the upper limb in Iraqi players likely contributed to their slower shot release and lower accuracy. Moreover, significantly lower vertical ground reaction forces (GRF) were recorded in Iraqi players, indicating weaker force production during jumping. GRF is fundamental to jump height and power, both of which influence shooting distance and precision (15). These findings echo those of Tang and Shung (2005), who demonstrated the contribution of lower limb strength to shooting accuracy (20). The reduced GRF values suggest a deficiency in lower limb strength, which negatively impacts both shooting mechanics and success rate. In contrast, international players displayed more favorable biomechanical profiles, including greater knee and shoulder flexion, higher angular velocities, and stronger GRFs—factors that enhance shooting performance. These results are consistent with Cabarkapa et al. (2021), who highlighted biomechanical adaptations that support elite performance in basketball (13). Moreover, Fatahi et al. (2021) emphasized the influence of both anthropometric and biomechanical variables in differentiating player performance levels (21).
Given these findings, it is recommended that player development programs in Iraqi basketball focus on improving biomechanical aspects related to shooting performance. Interventions should target joint positioning during landing (through plyometric and jump-landing drills), enhance upper limb angular velocity (via resistance and speed training), and increase lower limb strength to generate optimal GRFs. Such targeted training approaches are supported by Hudson (1985) and Williams et al. (2016), who reported that strength and conditioning training enhances shooting mechanics (9,22). Adopting these strategies may help bridge the biomechanical and performance gaps between Iraqi and international players, ultimately improving shooting accuracy and overall competitiveness.
5.    Conclusion
The aim of this study was to investigate biomechanical differences in three-point shooting performance between elite Iraqi basketball players and international standards. The research addressed core aspects of shooting mechanics, including joint angles, angular velocities, release dynamics, ground reaction forces, and shot accuracy. The findings clearly indicated that Iraqi players exhibited lower biomechanical efficiency across most performance variables—particularly in lower limb kinematics and ball release mechanics—which likely contributed to their reduced shooting success. The coordination of joint movements, efficient use of the kinetic chain, and neuromuscular control appear to be fundamental to high-level shooting performance. The results of this study underscore the need for structured strength and conditioning programs, biomechanical feedback tools, and targeted technical training to improve shooting outcomes in elite players. However, several limitations must be acknowledged. The study was conducted in a controlled environment and did not replicate dynamic, game-specific contexts such as fatigue, defense, or psychological pressure. Moreover, the relatively small sample size may limit the generalizability of the findings. In conclusion, this study emphasizes the importance of improving the biomechanical quality of shooting techniques through evidence-based training protocols and strategic planning aimed at enhancing the competitive performance of Iraqi basketball players. To enhance three-point shooting performance among elite Iraqi basketball players, it is recommended to implement targeted strength and conditioning programs focused on improving lower limb power and kinetic chain efficiency. Integrating neuromuscular training and motor learning strategies can help minimize biomechanical variability and improve consistency under pressure. The use of biomechanical assessment technologies—such as motion capture systems and force plates—is encouraged to provide objective feedback and guide technical refinement. Future research should also explore shooting mechanics under realistic game-like conditions to better simulate competitive demands. Fostering collaboration between researchers, coaches, and athletes is essential for translating biomechanical insights into practical performance improvements and supporting the broader development of basketball in emerging sport systems.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their gratitude to all individuals who contributed to the success of this study. Special thanks are extended to the staff of the College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences at the University of Baghdad for their invaluable assistance throughout the research process. The authors are also thankful to the research team for their technical expertise and support during data collection and analysis.

Ethical Considerations
Compliance with ethical guidelines
This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the College of Physical Education and Sport Sciences at the University of Baghdad (Approval Code: IRB-PESS-2025-04). Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. All procedures followed the ethical principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki and ensured the confidentiality and anonymity of participants.
Funding
This research did not receive any external funding and was entirely self-funded by the authors. 
Authors' contributions
Omar Waleed Abdulkareem: Conceptualized and designed the study, collected data, performed statistical analyses, and drafted the initial manuscript.
Hasnaa Sattar Jabbar: Supervised the study design and data collection, reviewed the manuscript, and contributed to the final revisions.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest related to the publication of this research.